The heritage of  India begins with the Vedas, which were compiled by the Aryan sages. Some of the Indology  scholars of the 19th century, such as Max Muller, placed the age of Vedas around 1500 BC. The world accepted that date and continues believing it. Recent archaeological and other studies place the age of Rigveda, the oldest Veda, around 3700 BC. The Rigveda has been serving and will serve as an encapsulated source of knowledge concerning almost all aspects of life in India, including the sciences. The Vedic thread can be seen in all the advancements that took place in India in the past.  In this article, we have made an effort to very briefly summarize the developments in sciences from ancient to the modern times.

Overview of science and technology in ancient India:-  There is a general perception about India that its heritage is primarily religio-philosophical and there is hardly anything to mention about India’s scientific and technological past. The reasons for this impression are due to the fact that references to science and technology are scattered in several different published works written in Sanskrit and Pali languages that are not currently in use. Moreover, the ancient knowledge is often in a very condensed form, which could be understood only by experts in those languages. In recent years, organizations like Vijnan Bharati (Mumbai) and Asian Agri-History Foundation (Hyderabad) have attempted to translate the ancient scientific literature into English. Information on scientific knowledge and technology in the fields of agriculture, architecture, astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, metallurgy, physics, shipping and navigation, textiles, numismatics, and design and layout is now widely available.

In developing science and technology, ancient Indian universities have played an important role. To name a few: Takshashila (Taxila) (800–540 BC) in the Northwest corner of the subcontinent (now near Rawalpindi, Pakistan) was the earliest. It provided education in a wide variety of subjects and used to host conferences in medicine and other fields that attracted scholars from Babylon, Syria, Arabia, Phoenicia, China, and Persia. This university had to face the brunt of  attacks and invasions from Persians, Greeks, Parthians, Shakas, and Kushans. In  450 AD, the Huns from Central Asia razed the institution. The university at Varanasi (Banaras) has maintained a continued existence and reputation as a place of learning for over 3000 years. Nalanda University, located in Bihar state of India was also a great centre of Arts and Science. Great scholars such as Chanakya, Nagarjuna, Buddhaghosha, Aryadeva, and Jyotipala taught at this university. It is said that there were 10,000 students and about 1500 teachers at Nalanda.  This university also fell victim to the invading hordes of Bakhtyar Khilji in the 10th century.

Mathematics:- Scientists of ancient India made a remarkable contribution to science of Mathematics.  Ancient India’s greatest gifts to the world of mathematics are the concept of zero and the elegant place value system of numeration. Reference to the concept of zero is found in the works of the great Sanskrit grammarian Panini (500 BC) and Pingala (200 BC) who produced the science of Prosody. Early evidence to zero is also found in Bakshali manuscript (300–400 AD). The manuscript  is now kept in the Oxford University Library. The Decimal Place Value System, expressing all numbers by ten digits including zero and assigning to each an absolute value and place, is the most profound contribution of India to the world of mathematics, even to mankind.  Leonard Fibonacci Pisano introduced this system to European mathematics in 1202 AD. In Yajurveda, Ramayana, and other texts, separate names are given for numbers 1 to 10 to the power 53. The Harappans developed standardization of weights and measures. Jain mathematicians (500 BC–100 AD) invented the perception to treat mathematics as an abstract discipline.

Prior to mathematical concepts in the world, the  Indus scale; length and weight; measurements and standardization, Shulba sutras  were in use in India.   Katyayana arithmetical operations; Vedic geometry; Boudhayana’s theorem (more widely known as Pythagoras theorem) are very important  in mathematics.  The number theory,  the binomial theorem,  Pingala’s Chandah Sutra were introduced in India. The Sthanagana Sutra lists the topics studied by them, which included concept of geometry, fractions, equations, square, square root, cube and cube root. The concept of indices and logarithms, permutations and combinations was also introduced by Jain mathematicians (Bhagvati Sutra – 4th century BC).  Some great Indian mathematician-astronomers were:-

• Aryabhatta (5th century AD) gave the value of 3.1416 for pie. He was the first in India to postulate that the earth is round, that it rotates on its axis creating day and night, that moon shines due to sunlight, and finally, that eclipses are due to shadows cast by earth and moon.

• Varahamihira (490 AD) is remembered for his revised version of Indian calendar. His contribution to mathematics was mainly in the area of trigonometry.

• Brahmagupta (598 AD) is said to be the founder of numerical analysis. He made several original contributions to algebra and trigonometry.

• Mahavira’s contributions (815 AD) were in the area of fractions, permutations and combinations, and the right-angled triangle.

• Sridharacharya’s work (later half of 10th century) was in the area of arithmetic, mensuration and geometry.  He was the first one to solve the quadratic equation in one variable.

• Bhaskaracharya (1114 AD) is known for the solution of the indeterminate equation of second order by the Chakravala method and his path-breaking work on cyclic quadrilaterals.

Science of Indian medicine (Ayurveda):- According to the legend, Brahma the creator of the universe propounded Ayurveda, an upveda (sub-Veda) of Atharvaveda; Daksha Prajapati learned Ayurveda from Brahma and passed it on to the celestial physician twins, the Ashwins. After handling by few more sages, the science of Indian medicine, the Ayurveda, was developed into three schools by the sages, Charaka, Sushruta, and Kashyapa.  Ayurveda has eight branches, namely general medicine, surgery, psychiatry, geriatrics, ophthalmology and ENT, toxicology, pediatrics and sexual disorders. These medical practices were common in the Indus Valley Civilization (3000 BC).  A person’s constitution is classified into 7 categories: (1) Vata, (2) Pitta, (3) Kapha, (4) Vata- Pitta, (5) Pitta-Kapha, (6) Vata-Kapha, and (7) Vata-Pitta-Kapha. Each type of constitution results in specific ailments and can be treated accordingly. In the Indian medicine, the body is considered the vehicle of equilibrium, being the dwelling place of consciousness and comprising the sum of modifications of the five elements, i.e., sky, air, light, water, and earth.                                      Anatomically, Ayurveda divides the human body into 19 parts. Sharir-Kriya (physiology) describes the biological and psychosomatic functioning of the living body  and the biological components are divided into 4 categories: vital constituents, tissue components, biochemical transformers, and excretory materials have been described in great detail. In Ayurveda, the pulse of the patient is checked by the doctor with his bare hands, without any instruments, and several aspects of the patient’s medical conditions are inferred. The science of formulating medicinal preparations  and techniques to make medicaments from fresh herbs for internal and external use were very well advanced in ancient India. Plastic surgery was performed on regular basis. Rules for healthy living habits and diets were also well recognized. It is not surprising that Ayurveda still is a respected alternative medicine in India.

As discussed in the previous section, during the era from Aryabhata to Bhaskara (5th to 12th centuries AD) India enjoyed a state of science that was advanced compared to that in Arabia or Europe. Scholars like Al-Biruni visited India to study Sanskrit so that they could translate the Indian works like that of Brahmagupta and others into Arabic. Europe during the Dark Ages had nothing comparable to offer. The interesting question therefore is: Why India could not maintain its momentum in science?

            There are various reasons for this. Rote learning practices were followed during ancient and medieval India. Knowledge of Vedas was passed down from one generation to next through oral tradition. So the teacher would have learned them by heart as a student and would pass them on to his disciples.  This method of teaching had limitations in stimulating original thinking. The other obvious reason is repeated invasions form West Asia that led to destruction of institutions and libraries after 1000 AD, followed by the Mughal and European colonization. Another reason was limited patronage to science during 10th through 18th century, during which India did not receive the same level of patronage to science as for literature, arts, and music. Legendary  poet Kalidas and great musician Tansen flourished because of royal patronage.  The social structure also contributed to lack of drive to innovate and create. The caste system  deprived a large section of people of education. The result of all these developments was that existing knowledge in science became unavailable to later generations.  After the British conso- lidated their hold on India, the Indian educated section started looking up to Europe for scientific information. New discoveries, especially in medical sciences and chemistry, with the availability of antibiotics, vaccines for small pox, cholera, etc. also led people to reduce faith in ancient science.

 Some of the most significant highlights of science in the 20th century  pre-independent  India are:

• Srinivasa Ramanujan’s work on highly composite numbers started a whole new line of investigations.

• Megha Nadh Saha’s ionization equation  opened the door to stellar astrophysics.

• S N Bose’s work on particle statistics clarified the behavior of photons  and opened the door to new ideas on statistics of micro- systems that obey the  quantum theory rules.

• C V Raman’s discovery that molecules scatter light  became known as the Raman effect.

• G N Ramachandran’s work in biology; he is considered one of the founders of the rapidly developing molecular biophysics.

• J C Bose’s basic work in plant physiology.

• Homi Bhaba’s work on atomic energy,  lead to present-day successes of nuclear sciences in India.

In the post-independent (1947 onwards) era, science was given priority in the economic development five-year plans in India. Within two months of India  becoming a republic, the Planning Commission was set up to prepare a blue print for India’s future, roughly once in five years.  In addition to setting up the University Grants Commission, the Government established some outstanding institutions, which have promoted science and technology; for example, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Atomic Energy Commission. The seven Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)  produce some 2000 graduates each year and are one of the main sources of technical manpower. Among the IITs internationally known alumni are Victor Menzes, Managing Director, Citibank; N A Rajat Gupta, Managing Director, McKinsey & Co; Vinod Khosla, a partner in Kleiner Perkins and the cofounder of the Sun Microsystems; Arun N Neteravali, President – Research, AT&T Bell Lab; N R Narayana Murthy, Chairman, Infosys Technology Ltd, and the list goes on.

Information technology:- Exports from the Information Technology (IT) industry in India are worth US$ 10 billion, which is about 20% of India’s exports.  The company Moser- Baer, located near New Delhi is the world’s third largest optical media manufacturer and the lowest-cost producer of CDs.  Similar advances in technology have been made in various sectors, especially in the automobile industry and pharmaceuticals.  India is among the three countries in the world that have built supercomputers on their own. Trained manpower in the fields of science and technology in India is being looked upon as a research hub by many multinational companies (MNCs). Over 70 MNCs including Delphi, Eli Lilly, General Electric (GE), Hewlett Packard, Heinz and Daimler Chrysler have set up R&D facilities in India. The GE’s John F Welch Technology Centre in Bangalore is the largest outside the United States, with an investment of US$ 60 million and employs 1,600 researchers. The Indian center devotes 20% of its resources  in the areas of nanotechnology, hydrogen energy, photonics, and advanced propulsion.

Space research:- In the three decades of its existence, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has thrust India into an exclusive space club of a handful of nations by building over a dozen sophisticated satellites, beginning with pioneering Aryabhatta in 1975 for communications, weather prediction and mapping natural resources, telecommunication, and television broadcasting, and boosted India’s missile programme. With a budget of only US $ 450 million a year – one-thirtieth of NASA’s  of US, India has 13 satellites in the orbit, produces some of the world’s best  remote imaging satellites.  Recently India sent its first unmanned  space craft Chandrayan-I to the moon. Example is found in the Majhawan Karan village in Uttar Pradesh, where using satellite imagery, technicians have helped 175 villagers reclaim 40 acres  of barren land in an area long haunted by hunger. This has changed the lives of subsistence farmers. Another example of space program is seen in Lucknow, capital of Uttar Pradesh, where doctors in the basement of the main public hospital chatted over live satellite link with doctors in rural hospitals hundreds of miles away.

Agriculture:- Following independence in 1947, India received considerable technical assistance through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, Fulbright, and others trained a large number of Indian agricultural scientists in USA.  This resulted in the “Green Revolution” in the 1970s. Early in the 20th century, India had faced many famines and deaths due to starvation. Even in early 1960s, famine was looming over India and millions of tons of wheat had to be imported.  In 1966–67 India imported 20 million tons of food grains because it could not feed its 480 million people. After introducing new seeds of wheat from Mexico and rice seeds from the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines, India produced 17 million tons of wheat in 1967–68 and 71 million tons in 2003. India is now self-sufficient in food grains production.  The use of better seed, double cropping, and easy  availability of loans saw the food grain production growing by 70% in a decade. 

Emerging technologies:- Technologies  like biotechnology  dealing with many aspects of basic inputs to agriculture: seeds, plants, soil treatment, etc has been playing  a crucial role in achieving food security for the country.  Now we have  production of transgenic plants, i.e., plants that are “human-made” . Satellite imagery and remote sensing are making rapid progress.  India is strong in the area of remote sensing technologies. We have our own high-resolution remote sensing satellites whose pictures are used all over the world commercially. We also have excellent capabilities in utilizing remotely sensed data for various applications: groundwater targeting, soil salinity assessment, crop yield estimates, and so on. In addition, space technology can be used very effectively to assist extension work: disseminate success stories to farmers, educate them with do’s and don’ts, and help them ask questions through talk-back facilities that can be made available through satellite.

Vision:- • India to aim to be a major player in the world in the agricultural sector and a leading exporter of  agri-products. • Eastern India to become a major producer of wheat. • Rice-producing areas to use hybrid seeds on a large scale. • Central India to be made a center of vegetables, fruits, pulses, and coarse grains. • More emphasis on tuberous crops. • Core post-harvest technologies to be mastered and disseminated. • Steps to educate farmers.